RELATIONAL APPROACHES TO CAREER DEVELOPMENT

ROE’S PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT THEORY

Roe’s Occupational Classification System
The theory predicts occupational selection based on individual differences, which are biological,
sociological, and psychological and specifically focuses on psychological needs that develop between the interactions of the parent and child.
- Roe believed that people in the same occupation were raised similarly.
- Roe developed a classification system that related parent-child relationships to occupational groupings.
- Roe classified early parent-child relationships into three types, each with two subclassifications.
- Roe was more interested in the attitudes of parents toward their children than in the specific ways in which parents behaved toward their children.

The Three Types of Parental Attitudes
_ Concentration on the child: being overprotective or overdemanding
_ Avoidance of the child: rejection and neglect
_ Acceptance of the child: causal acceptance and loving acceptance

Orientation Toward or Away from People
_ The variety of parental attitudes bring about certain types of personalities in the child

Relationship of Parental Style to Occupational Selection
_ Made prediction about occupational selection and how children developed certain attitudes toward or away from people (which depended on parents)

Research Support
_ Much of the research was based on memories¼may be faulty
_ Little evidence that early child-raising patterns predict later occupational entry.
_ Some evidence that different types of activities are chosen within an occupation.


ATTACHMENT THEORY

Attachment theory studies the role that attachments (primarily parental) play in shaping the life of an individual. The relationship that a baby has with others, especially the mother is crucial.

Bowlby – most well-known attachment theorist; studied the importance of
attachment, separation, and loss in human development;
effects on normal children;
particularly interested in how individuals’ sense of being worthwhile and views of their own competence develop along with their views of others.
Role of “attachment figures” was studied.

Three types of responding (Ainsworth, et al.)¼“strange situation” was used
_ Secure Pattern – infant responds to caregiver easily and continues exploratory behavior; interacts well with people and things in the world.
_ Anxious-Ambivalent Pattern – child becomes anxious because parent is inconsistent; child’s view of oneself is full of uncertainty; decreased exploratory behavior.
_ Avoidant Pattern – infant ignores or rejects care; developed a sense of being alone in the world and unable to trust others.

Some Research Observations
Children with a secure pattern of attachment in their first six years of life are more willing to explore relationships with others and more willing to play with objects or animals, activities leading eventually to greater familiarity with their world and the world of work.
Attachment predicted confidence in career decision making in some studies.
Attachment to mother contributes to fuller career exploration.

PARENT-CHILD CAREER INTERACTIONS

Joint Action – conversations between parents and child
* Focus on how parents and children perceive career decision making and their areas of agreement and disagreement.
* As families talk, they may establish closeness or a sense of separateness depending on the nature of the agreements or disagreements.
*Five-step method of including parents and children in career counseling:

Parent Involved Career Exploration [PICE], designed for students age 14-18, done in one session
_ Introduction
_ Pattern identification exercises [PIE] - Students talk about a leisure activity that went well and one that did not - consider pattern
_ Discussion of school preferences and performance
_ A perspective on education and labor market possibilities
_ Planning the next step

FAMILY SYSTEMS THERAPY

Enmeshed family – responsibilities in the family are unclear.
Disengaged family- responsibilities in the family are dictated by a parent.
Family relationships (such as enmeshment and disengagement) were stronger predictors of career development than gender, socioeconomic status, or educational achievement in one study.
When working with clients who are trying to figure out an occupation, it may be helpful to discuss family career patterns.
Genograms - (drawing relationships of family members) - a good method for examining family career patterns.

PHILLIPS’S DEVELOPMENTAL RELATIONSHIP MODEL

Unlike other relationship models discussed so far, Phillips and her colleagues look at relationships that include friends, siblings, teachers, peers, and others.

There have been previous studies that categorize types of relationships and their effect on career development. Phillips’s work is the most extensive, even though it is recent and uses small samples.

There are two major themes: Actions of Others (seven ways people involve themselves in career decision-making of others) and Self-Directedness (eight ways an individual may participate in finding other people to help in career decision-making).

Actions of Others - seven actions going from low involvement of others to high involvement of others.
1. Nonactive Support - not involved with decision-maker in making choice process
2. Unconditional Support - person thinks decision-maker is making a good decision.
3. Information Provided - person provides information to the decision-maker
4. Alternatives Provided - provide career related opportunities
5. Push-Nudge - attempt to guide an individual in a career direction
6. Forced Guidance - offering suggestions without considering the desires of the decision-maker
7. Criticism - tells a person what to do and criticizes them.

Self-Directedness - an increasing effectiveness of making good use of other people in career decision-making (eight categories)
1. Confident Independence (false confidence) - individuals appear to be confident but have not planned for the future
2. Unsuccessful Recruitment - individuals know they need help, but haven’t been able to get good assistance
3. Insecure Use of Others - seek out advice of others but unsure about ability to make decisions
4. Cautious - very careful not to make mistakes in decision-making
5. Seeking Information about the Self - unsure about interests, abilities, or values, and seek out others for their perspective
6. Weighing Options - ask others to help in one or more parts of the decision-making process
7. Sounding Board - talking out one’s point of view with others
8. Systematic - individuals consider the input of others but take responsibility for their own career decision-making

Individuals can be in one stage in Actions of Others and a very different step in Self-Directedness. Moving from one stage to another, especially in actions of others is often not sequential.

APPLYING THE THEORIES TO WOMEN AND CULTURALLY DIVERSE POPULATIONS

Roe considered cultural and gender factors carefully in her theory.

Attachment theory has studied gender differences but found few.

Family therapy researchers have studied differences in child-raising patterns as they relate to culture and gender, but do not focus much on career development.

Phillips’s theory has not yet focused on culture and gender

Blog about Storytelling and Career

http://astoriedcareer.com/2005/05/storynarrative-in-career-couns.html#more

This whole blog is an excellent resource for anyone wanting to utilize narrative and storytelling in their counseling practice.

This particular link leads to the first post in a long line of information that is pertinent to this particular subject.

Thank you Karen Hansen, PhD.

NARRATIVE APPROACH TO CAREER COUNSELING

Clients narrate or tell about their past career development, present career development, and construct their future career.

This is an active approach that attends to how clients intentionally interact with the world and learn about it through these interactions.

Focuses on the clients’ lives.

Similar to a play or psychodrama, in which clients enact their lives; career is seen as a story.

Application of concepts from literary criticism
_ agent - client, narrator, author of story
_ setting - where story occurs, also important people such as family, friends, etc.
_ action - designed to reach a goal that will satisfy needs of agent
_ instrument - what agent uses to reach goal


Storytelling

Client’s narration has a beginning (difficult or troubling situation), middle (obstacles and instruments that may be used in working toward reaching a personal goal), and end (counselor and client work together to develop solutions that will provide satisfaction and to reach a goal that will satisfy client).


Goals of Assessment in Narrative Counseling

Counselor is like an editor. Find out what is important from client’s story and what’s not
Identify patterns in clients’ lives
Form a sense of the client’s identity
Learn about the client’s goals for the future


Narrative Career Counseling

Counselor’s role is to help clarify the narrative and help client make career decisions
Counselors should listen for 3 important elements in a story
Coherence (should make sense chronologically or in terms of sequence of events)
Continuity (story should be able to be seen in terms of action that is directed toward a goal)
Causality (being able to explain events)


Cochran’s Narrative Career Counseling

Cochran describes 7 “episodes” or phases in career counseling using a narrative point of view
First three episodes - emphasize making a meaning out of the career narrative
Episodes 4-6 - focus on enactment or being active
Episode 7 - refers to crystallization of a decision

1. Elaborating a Career Problem
Clarify the client’s concern¼fill in gap of what is actually happening to client and his ideal
Ordinary conversation is primary way of elaborating
Also vocational card sort, construct laddering, interest and values inventories, ability tests
Drawing
Anecdotes - short stories that clients tell that help counselor understand aspects of clients’ lives

2. Composing a Life History
Two basic intentions - (1) to gather information about client’s interests, values, abilities, and motives; (2) to attend to the way clients select and organize their life stories
Ask clients to describe important events in their lives and discuss their meaning
Dramatization - counselor becomes the narrator and may refer to the client in third person
Other techniques - success experiences, lifelines, career-o-gram, and life chapters

3. Eliciting a Future Narrative
Clients consider their strengths, interests, and values as they may appear in the future
Focus is on evaluation of one’s strengths, interests, and values
Use same techniques from previous stage, with an emphasis on future
Guided fantasy - descriptive and/or evaluative, often represents an end point (something to help client reflect on accomplishments that he would like to have)
Written and narrative outline - Five sections: mission, strengths, work needs, vulnerabilities, and possibilities

4. Reality Construction
Taking action in the world of work; three purposes to active exploration:
(1) Immerses client in the real world
(2) Clients get information from a variety of sources and are able to evaluate the information as they talk to many sources
(3) Can imagine themselves in an occupation

5. Changing a Life Structure
Change in situation, oneself, or both
Clients often expect to make a change in the way they work or who they work with
New opportunities arise (e.g. salary increase, training, etc.); also negative aspects (e.g. fear of failing, anxiety about doing a poor job)

6. Enacting a Role
Trying things out to make one’s desired goals possible
Some start with a small role which may lead to larger ones

7. Crystallizing a Decision
Occurs when a gap between a client’s career problem and the ideal or possible solutions diminishes. Sometimes takes place when clients experience the previous six episodes.

Can be facilitated in three ways:
Identifying and eliminating obstructions
Actualizing opportunities
Reflecting on career decisions
Internal obstructions (lack of confidence in being able to obtain a job) to crystallizing vs. external obstructions (pressures from parents to enter a certain occupation)


THE ROLE OF ASSESSMENT

Inventories and assessments play a small role in constructivist career counseling¼since clients see their own realities. Tests and inventories can be used for all individuals (but will not help in understanding the perceptual world of the client)


THE ROLE OF OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION

Can integrate occupational information in reptest, laddering, and vocational card sort and other techniques


APPLYING THE THEORIES TO WOMEN AND CULTURALLY DIVERSE POPULATIONS

Culture and gender interact within the context of client actions; stories or histories exist within a cultural context. How one views an action can have varying cultural interpretations.
Gender and culture guide how people develop attitudes, skills, and values
Young and colleagues have studied career projects in adolescence by studying pairs of adolescents and parents. A career project is a series of actions that adolescents and their parents take that is related to the adolescent’s choice of career.


COUNSELOR ISSUES

Counselors should be aware of their own perceptions of reality.
Understand the relationship fo the counselor’s constructs to those of the client.

CONSTRUCTIVIST APPROACH TO CAREER DEVELOPMENT

Constructivism - Psychological approach that has developed out of a philosophical position, postmodernism, which believes that individuals construct or perceive their own reality or truth, and that there is no fixed truth.
_ Related to postmodernism
_ View individuals as creating their own views of events and relationships in their lives
_ Constructivist counselors help clients see problems as meaningful options that are no longer helpful
_ Constructivist counselors deal with the ways in which their clients impose their own order on their problems and how they derive meanings from their experiences with others

Postmodernism - Reaction to modernism, which takes a rationalist approach that emphasizes scientific proof and is a reflection of advances in technology and science
_ Reflects a multiculturally diverse world in which different individuals can have their own construct or view of what is real for them

PERSONAL CONSTRUCT PSYCHOLOGY

_ Most closely related to the work of George Kelly (The Psychology of Personal Constructs)
_ Constructive alternativism - individuals view the world differently from each other, to make sense of the world, people develop constructs or theories toward viewing people and events
_ Individuals behave as scientists predicting events by advancing theories about them and then testing the theories, constructs are continually modified to enhance predictions

Constructs
Bipolar-reflecting opposites (e.g. smart vs. stupid)
Not all constructs are applied to all events
Constructs are arranged in terms of how meaningful they are to individuals
Can be grouped into themes (e.g. related to the work role and to vocational choice)
Not events, but perception of events

Vocational construct system
_ Helps individuals to find a purpose in work
_ Control how they work
_ Evaluate the choices they make and the work that they do
_ Develop a sense of identity through work
_ Changes as an individual develops

Assessment and Counseling Strategies
Techniques that help assess clients’ perceptions of constructs about themselves and the occupational world are likely to lead to new constructs and the development of themes
Counselor interacts in a very collaborative way with the client

The Vocational Reptest
Most used instrument in construct theory
“Role Construct Repertory Test” is the full name
Client provides much of the information used in the reptest
Clients describe constructs related to occupations
Client is asked to compare and contrast various sets of items (e.g. occupations)
After comparing occupations, client would be asked to rate them
Requires time devoted to writing, ranking, and scoring

Laddering Technique
A means of determining which constructs are most important to clients
Helps identify the relative importance of the constructs within their system of constructs
Starts with choosing three occupations and then developing constructs about them by asking questions about them
Counselor continues to focus on questions about constructs as he moves up the “ladder”
Helps to clarify own feelings

Vocational Card Sort
VCS is a group of 60 to 100 cards with the name of an occupation on one side and information about the occupation on the other side
Clients are asked to sort the cards in three groups
_ Occupations one would consider or find acceptable
_ Those that one would not choose
_ Those that one is uncertain about
Then client must divide the three piles in any way by placing the cards in groups that have common reasons for acceptance or rejection
Counselor is attempting to determine the values or constructs that are important.

Questions to consider in facing a career change

1. How would you describe your career path so far?
2. How has a company change affected you? How did it make you feel?
3. Have you experienced any failure in your career? If so, what did it lead to?
4. What were your childhood goals and ambition for life? Which have you been able to fulfill?
5. Who are two people you know who seem to have accomplished their dreams? What do you remember about their accomplishments?
6. What do you imagine your retirement will be like?

If you are facing a career change, I recommend this excellent book by Dan Miller (Miller 2007).

Handling a Crisis

A crisis can be a very scary thing. As many of us are aware, the present social climate of uncertainty can lead to fear and apprehension in addition to whatever unique problems we might each be facing.

There is a clever, but mistakenly contrived idea that a crisis = danger + opportunity and that there is a Chinese character that represents just that idea. This is simply not true. Either the "fact" of the Chinese character or the idea that we should consider a crisis to be an opportunity.

On count one, please visit this excellent webpage on the Chinese language.

On count two, a crisis begins when the unexpected leads to fear and apprehension. Now it could begin a lot sooner that that. However, we may not have any control over the beginnings of a crisis. What we do have some measure of control over is how we handle the crisis and whether we let fear and apprehension drag us down.

Crisis does not equal danger plus opportunity. In fact, a crisis, and how we handle a crisis, can prevent us from benefiting from the opportunities that are always there.

The First Century Roman philosopher Seneca said, “Sometimes even to live is an act of courage.” Life is not easy. If life has been easy for you, you may be caught by surprise when a true crisis arises. As Viktor Frankl said, the courage to live comes from finding meaning in your suffering.

Seneca also said, “Luck is what happens when preparation meets opportunity.”

The first step in handling a crisis is to realize that you are in danger. Ask yourself, "What is at stake here?"

Consider the statement, "All progress requires change, but not all change is progress."

Progress happens when we face our struggles and suffering with a sense of purpose, and more precisely, with a plan. Do not let fear and apprehension prevent you from having hope for tomorrow.

For those who are experiencing change and especially for those who are facing a crisis, the discouragement, frustration, and resentment you may feel can put an obstacle in the way of embracing what is truly important to you. Getting stuck in these feelings is a result of looking backwards, at something that has already occured.

As soon as we create a clear, meaningful plan for the future, those feelings dissolve and are replaced with enthusiasm, optimism, and hope.

It has been proven that negative thoughts and feelings have no power against a sense of purpose and a clear plan for the future. Look boldly at whatever you are facing and create a plan of action that will turn hopelessness and "bad luck" into meaningful action.

Again, opportunity is always there, but is difficult to benefit from it without preparation and a sense of purpose.

CAREER CRISES AFFECTING CULTURALLY DIVERSE POPULATIONS

Discrimination is well documented as a major problem for members of minority groups in their career development

When discrimination occurs, person is more likely to face a crisis
Atkinson, Morten, and Sue’s model can be applied here.

Atkinson, Morten, and Sue’s Identity Development Model

Conformity

Dissonance

Resistance and immersion

Introspection

Synergetic articulation and awareness

CAREER CRISES AFFECTING WOMEN

Three general types of career crises more likely to affect women than men

1. Experiencing discrimination – usually unanticipated and involuntary
2. Making decisions based on child-raising and family issues –
most times anticipated and voluntary, but not always
3. Facing sexual harassment – dramatic, unanticipated, and involuntary

Temporary Re-entry into and Leave-taking from the Labor Force
Women may follow a large variety of patterns in going in and out of the labor force (e.g. maternity leave, marriage, divorce, death of a husband)
Sometimes can be traumatic, particularly if because of divorce or death of husband


Sexual Harassment
May be an unanticipated, involuntary crisis that threatens one’s career and psychological health
Definition: form of sexual discrimination that includes sexual threats, sexual bribery, sexual jokes or comments, or touching that interferes with a person doing her job.

Till’s 5 levels of sexual harassment:
• Level 1: Gender Harassment – verbal remarks or non-touching behaviors that are sexual in nature
• Level 2: Seductive Behavior – inappropriate sexual advances
• Level 3: Sexual Bribery – request for sexual activity in turn for some kind of reward
• Level 4: Sexual Coercion – individual is coerced into sexual activity by threat of punishment
• Level 5: Sexual Assault – forceful attempts to touch, grab, fondle

Adult women who are sexually harassed – 16% to 90%; other studies – 25% to 50%, most cases are the least severe level

How do victims respond? Fitzgerald and Ormerod summarize reaction into 2 major categories:
Internally focused strategies
• Minimizing a behavior or denying it is really offensive
• Putting up with harassment
• Excusing the offender
• Taking responsibility for the incident

Externally focused strategies
• Avoiding or placating the harasser
• Confronting the harasser and telling him the behavior is unwanted
• Getting support from the institution
• Getting social support from friends and family


Gutek and Koss’ 4 stages of reacting to sexual harassment

• Confusion and Self-Blame – individual assumes responsibility
• Fear and Anxiety – fear for career and safety
• Depression and Anger – when a woman realizes she is not responsible for harassment, she may become more angry
• Disillusionment – even if she charges harasser, process is long and arduous and may not always have a successful outcome

ADULT CAREER CRISES AND TRANSITIONS

Transition – from a stage point of view, it is the movement from one stage to another, may be smooth

Crisis – more negative term, a situation in which a person has to develop new methods of dealing with a problem that has arisen rather suddenly and may be disorienting

TYPES OF TRANSITIONS

Schlossberg’s 4 types of transitions:
_ Anticipated -happens in the lifespan of most people
e.g. graduation, marriage, starting a job, retirement
_ Unanticipated - unexpected events, such as death of a family member, being fired or transferred
_ “Chronic hassles” - situations such as a long commute to work, an unreasonable supervisor
_ Nonevents (events that don’t happen) - an event that someone wishes to happen, but never occurs e.g. a promotion that never happens; for women: not being able to leave or enter the workforce easily

Hopson and Adams class of transitions:
voluntary - e.g. quitting one job to do another
involuntary - e.g. being fired or laid off


CATEGORIES OF CAREER TRANSITIONS
Career events are classified into three areas (Schlossberg):

1. Normative role transitions
Anticipated and voluntary (e.g. starting your first full-time job)
Occurs in Super’s exploration stage
Become crises when not anticipated

Louis’s 5 categories of normative transitions that people experience in work roles similar to Marvis and Hall’s “boundaryless” careers:
• Entering or reentering a labor pool
• Taking on a different role in an organization
• Moving from one organization to another
• Changing professions
• Leaving the labor pool

Career Transitions Inventory – to assess how well people believe they have made career transitions; 5 subscales:
• Readiness – how motivated you are to make a career transition
• Confidence – one’s sense of self-efficacy in being able to make a successful transition
• Control – degree to which people feel they can make their own decisions
• Perceived Support – how much support people feel they get from their friends and family
• Decision Independence – the extent to which people make decisions based primarily on their own needs or whether or not they are considering the needs and desires of others

2. Nonnormative career events

Far more likely to become crises than normative transitions
Most common – loss of a job (being fired or laid off), can be devastating unless
the work role is not a salient one
Other examples – promotion, transfer, or demotion to another job

3. Persistent occupational problems
career problems that persist for a long period of time, causing a cumulative effect that can lead to a transition crisis
examples – unpleasant work environment, pressures on the job, relations with colleagues and superiors


MODELS OF TRANSITIONS AND CRISES
Reaction to crises takes place over a period of time

Two basic phases of transitions.
_ Dealing with and decreasing stress
_ Attending towards details of the crisis so that one can return to normal life

Individuals respond to job loss with depression, anxiety and reduced self-esteem

Positive change and growth can occur with involuntary work changes.

Outplacement counselors can help with these severe reactions (e.g. shock and negative emotional impact)
_ Help people access their current situations, abilities, values, and interests
_ Help clients set career goals and develop strategies for job search
_ Teach resume writing, interviewing, and locating job or educational opportunities.


HOPSON AND ADAM’S MODEL OF ADULT TRANSITIONS

Immobilization
Example: initial shock when you find out you’ve been fired
Overwhelmed, unable to make plans, possibly unable to verbally respond
Few moments to few monthshow long it lasts depends on situation and psychological makeup of person

Minimization
Desire to make the change appear smaller than it is
Often, person will deny that change is even taking place or will tell herself that event doesn’t matter

Self-Doubt
Doubting oneself and one’s ability to provide for oneself and for one’s dependents
Common reactions are anxiety due to not knowing what will happen, fear of the future, sadness, and anger

Letting Go
Individual lets go of angry, tense, frustrated, or other feelings
Accepts what is really happening to her
Detaches herself from original situation and starts to look at future

Testing Out
May develop a burst of energy, a sense of “now I can do it”
Sometimes people will describe the way things should be, may have advice for others in the same situation
May have ideas of how they will move forward

Search for Meaning
Seeks to understand how events are different and why
Cognitive process in which people try to understand not only the feelings of others, but also their own

Internalization
Change in both values and lifestyle
May have developed new coping skills and has grown emotionally, spiritually, or cognitively as a result of going through difficult crisis


COUNSELOR ISSUES

Counselor’s experience with her own crises and transitions
Problems when the counselor is in crisis

Super's Life-Career Rainbow